Complete Guide to Vaccines: Types, Schedules, & Side Effects

1. All About Vaccines

A. What is a Vaccine?

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease.

Natural immunity is acquired when someone contracts and recovers from a disease. A vaccine helps provide this protection without the person suffering from the actual illness.

Vaccines work by introducing agents that mimic disease-causing microorganisms into the body. These agents often are a weakened or killed form of the microbe. In some cases, the vaccine uses a toxin or a surface protein to mimic the real disease. When the body encounters these agents, it mounts an immune response and produces antibodies against them.

If the person later encounters the disease-causing germ, their body can more easily recognize and fight it. Their immune system, having already encountered a similar germ through the vaccine, is able to easily fight the illness.

Vaccines are one of the most effective tools in modern medicine. They have helped to eradicate or control many diseases, including smallpox, polio, and measles.

B. Key Benefits of Vaccines:

• Disease prevention: Vaccines help prevent people from getting sick.
• Protection from severe outcomes: Vaccines help to protect people from serious complications of disease, such as hospital admissions or death.
• Advancement of public health: Vaccines help protect entire communities from disease by creating herd immunity.
• Safety and efficacy: Vaccines undergo rigorous testing to ensure they work as intended.
• Economic savings: Vaccines save money in the long run by preventing people from getting sick and requiring medical care.

C. The History of Vaccines: From Smallpox to COVID-19

Vaccines have played a vital role in protecting people from infectious diseases for centuries. China and India developed the earliest known vaccines in the 10th century. They used a technique called variolation. Variolation involved exposing people to a mild form of cowpox that helped confer immunity against more severe pox diseases.

The modern era of vaccination began in the late 18th century with the work of Edward Jenner. Jenner developed the first smallpox vaccine by using cowpox virus to immunize people against smallpox. This was a breakthrough, as smallpox was a highly contagious and deadly disease that killed millions of people each year.

Vaccines help protect against a wide range of diseases, including polio, measles, mumps, rubella, tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, influenza, and COVID-19.

Vaccines work by exposing the body to a weakened or inactive form of a virus or bacteria. This helps the body develop immunity to the disease without actually getting sick. Vaccines are safe and effective. Vaccines are one of the most effective ways to stimulate immune system against deadly infectious diseases.

Here are some of the key milestones in the history of vaccines:

• 1000 BC: Chinese people use variolation to protect against smallpox.
• 1796: Edward Jenner develops the first smallpox vaccine.
• 1885: Louis Pasteur develops vaccines against rabies, anthrax, and cholera.
• 1926: The first vaccine for children targeting diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (DTP) was made in the United States.
• 1954: The first polio vaccine is developed.
• 1963: The first measles vaccine is developed.
• 1967: The World Health Organization (WHO) launches the “Global Polio Eradication Initiative”.
• 1980: Smallpox is eradicated from the world.
• 2000: The WHO launches the Measles Initiative.
• 2020: FDA approves Moderna, Pfizer, and Biontech Covid-19 vaccines
• 2021: mRNA vaccines are authorized for use in adolescents and adults.
• 2022: mRNA vaccines are authorized for use in children as young as 6 months of age.

Scientists are constantly working to develop new vaccines. In recent years, there has been a lot of progress in the development of new vaccine technologies, such as mRNA vaccines. mRNA vaccines are a promising new type of vaccine that can be developed quickly and easily. mRNA vaccines are they highly effective and can be used against many diseases including cancers.

The future of vaccines is bright. With continued research and development, vaccines will continue to play a vital role in protecting people from infectious diseases.

Here are some additional resources that you may find helpful:

• The History of Vaccines: https://www.historyofvaccines.org/
• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/
• The World Health Organization (WHO): https://www.who.int/immunization/en/

D. Importance in Public Health

Vaccines are essential for public health. They help to protect people from disease, prevent the spread of disease, and save lives. The WHO estimates that vaccines have prevented 2.5 million deaths in children under the age of 5 in 2021.

In addition to preventing deaths, vaccines also help to prevent serious complications of disease, such as hospitalization and disability. For example, the measles vaccine has been shown to reduce the risk of measles-related encephalitis by 99%.

Vaccines also help to prevent the spread of disease. When a large enough percentage of the population is vaccinated against a disease, it becomes more difficult for the disease to spread. This is known as herd immunity. Herd immunity is important for protecting people who cannot be vaccinated, such as infants, people with weakened immune systems, and people with certain medical conditions.

Vaccines are safe and effective. They have been rigorously tested and monitored for safety. The vast majority of people who receive vaccines do not experience any serious side effects. The benefits of vaccination far outweigh the risks.

In addition to the direct benefits of preventing disease, vaccines also have a number of indirect benefits. For example, vaccines can help to improve school attendance, reduce healthcare costs, and boost economic productivity.

COVID-19 Vaccines

COVID-19 vaccines have been one of the most important public health interventions in recent history. They have helped to reduce the number of cases, hospitalizations, and deaths from COVID-19. COVID-19 vaccines are safe and effective. They have been rigorously tested and monitored for safety. The vast majority of people who receive COVID-19 vaccines do not experience any serious side effects.

The Importance of Vaccination

Vaccination is one of the most important things you can do to protect your health and the health of your community. Vaccines are safe, effective, and life-saving. If you are not up to date on your vaccinations, please talk to your doctor.

Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy and Misinformation

Vaccine hesitancy is the reluctance or refusal to vaccinate despite the availability of vaccines. Vaccine hesitancy is a complex issue with a variety of causes, including concerns about safety, efficacy, and the need for vaccines. Misinformation about vaccines is a major contributor to vaccine hesitancy.

Misinformation about vaccines can spread quickly and easily through social media and other online platforms. This misinformation can be harmful because it can lead people to make uninformed decisions about vaccination.

It is important to be aware of the sources of vaccine misinformation and to be critical of the information you see online. If you have any concerns about vaccines, talk to your doctor. They can provide you with accurate information about the benefits and risks of vaccination.

The Future of Vaccines

Vaccines are a vital tool for protecting public health. As scientists learn more about the immune system, they are developing new and improved vaccines. These new vaccines have the potential to prevent even more diseases and save even more lives.

The future of vaccines is bright. With continued research and development, vaccines will continue to play a leading role in protecting people from infectious diseases.

2. Different Types of Vaccines

Vaccines are biological preparations that provide active or passive acquired immunity to a particular disease. They do this by introducing agents that mimic disease-causing microorganisms into the body. These agents include weakened, mutated or inactivated forms of the microbe, its toxins, or surface proteins.

There are different types of vaccines, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.

Live Attenuated Vaccines

Live attenuated vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses a weakened form of the disease-causing virus or bacterium. We weaken the microbe to make it unable to cause disease. However, it should still be able to stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies.

Live attenuated vaccines are often the most effective type of vaccine, because they closely mimic the natural infection. They can also provide long-lasting immunity with fewer doses than other types of vaccines.

However, live attenuated vaccines can sometimes cause mild side effects, such as fever or rash. In rare cases, they can also cause serious side effects, such as meningitis or encephalitis.

Here are some examples of live attenuated vaccines:

• MMR vaccine (measles, mumps, and rubella)
• Varicella vaccine (chickenpox)
• Yellow fever vaccine

The advantages of live attenuated vaccines include:

• High efficacy: They are often the most effective type of vaccine.
• Long-lasting immunity: They can provide long-lasting immunity with fewer doses than other types of vaccines.
• Versatility: You can use them in a broad range of people, including young children and people with weakened immune systems.
• Cost-effectiveness: They are generally more affordable to produce than other types of vaccines.

The potential risks of live attenuated vaccines include:

• Mild illness: They can sometimes cause mild side effects, such as fever or rash.
• Rare severe side effects: In rare cases, they can also cause serious side effects, such as meningitis or encephalitis.
• Immunocompromised patients: Not recommended for people with weak immune systems as the live virus or bacterium could cause infection.

1. DNA vaccines:

DNA vaccines are a promising new type of vaccine that uses genetic material to stimulate the immune system. DNA vaccines consist of a piece of genetic code that encodes a protein from the disease-causing organism. When the body receives the DNA vaccine, the cells uptake the DNA and initiate protein production. This protein triggers the immune system to make antibodies and other cells that defend against the disease.

DNA vaccines have a number of potential advantages over traditional vaccines. First, they are very safe because they do not contain any live virus or bacteria. Secondly, it is easy to produce them and we can rapidly scale them up to meet demand. Third, designers can create them to target multiple diseases or strains of a single disease. But it’s important to note that they are not yet licensed for use in humans.

Here are some of the advantages of DNA vaccines:

• Safety: DNA vaccines are safe because they do not contain live virus or bacteria. Therefore, the person receiving the vaccine will not contract the disease.
• Stability: DNA vaccines are stable at room temperature, making them easier to store and transport.
• Scalability: We can produce DNA vaccines in large quantities quickly and easily.
• Flexibility: Researchers can design DNA vaccines to target multiple diseases or strains of a single disease.

However, we need to address some challenges before we can widely use DNA vaccines. One challenge is that the immune system can sometimes be slow to respond to DNA vaccines. Another challenge is that DNA vaccines may not be as effective as traditional vaccines in some people. And finally, researchers are still working on ways to improve the immune response to DNA vaccines.

Despite these challenges, DNA vaccines are a promising new technology that has the potential to revolutionize vaccination.

1. Inactivated vaccines 

Inactivated vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses killed viruses or bacteria to stimulate the immune system. Heat, chemicals, or radiation inactivate the viruses or bacteria, preventing them from causing disease.

Generally, inactivated vaccines are safe and effective, and healthcare providers can administer them to people with weakened immune systems. But they might not work as well as live vaccines and may need more doses for lasting protection. Inactivated vaccines have played a major role in eradicating diseases such as smallpox.

Here are some of the benefits of inactivated vaccines:

• Inactivated vaccines have no live virus or bacteria, so the vaccine recipient cannot get the disease from the vaccination.
• Inactivated vaccines are useful for people with weak immune systems. They can prevent different diseases like polio, flu, and rabies.
• Inactivated vaccines can be effective in preventing disease, although they may not be as effective as live attenuated vaccines.
• Inactivated vaccines are often used in combination with other vaccines to provide more comprehensive protection. For example, the DTaP vaccine is a combination vaccine that protects against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis.

Here are some of the risks associated with inactivated vaccines:

• Inactivated vaccines may not always provide as long-lasting immunity as live attenuated vaccines, so they may require more doses.
• Some people may experience mild side effects after receiving an inactivated vaccine. These side effects could include a fever or pain at the injection site. However, the risk of serious side effects from inactivated vaccines is very low.
• Inactivated vaccines play an important role in public health. They are a safe and effective way to prevent a variety of diseases, including polio, influenza, and rabies.

Research is ongoing to improve the effectiveness and safety of inactivated vaccines. Scientists are working on vaccines to prevent diseases like HIV and malaria, which are currently hard to immunize against.

1. Subunit, Recombinant, Polysaccharide, and Conjugate Vaccines:

Some vaccines use parts of a virus or bacterium to trigger an immune response. We know them as subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines. These vaccines target distinct parts of the pathogen, such as proteins, sugars, or capsids, rather than the whole pathogen.

Subunit vaccines:

Scientists make subunit vaccines from specific proteins or antigens present on the pathogen’s surface. They introduce only the necessary components to elicit an immune reaction. For example, the hepatitis B vaccine is a subunit vaccine.

Recombinant vaccines:

Scientists produce recombinant vaccines by transferring genes from one organism to another. These genes encode specific proteins or antigens from the pathogen’s surface. The human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine is a notable example.

Conjugate vaccines:

Conjugate vaccines marry the principle of subunit vaccines with a protein from a different organism. This added protein enhances the immune response to the primary antigen. The Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine is one such example.

Here are some of the benefits of subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines:

• Safety: Vaccines are safe as they only have necessary parts of the pathogen to trigger the immune system.
• Versatility: You can use them to prevent a variety of diseases, including hepatitis B, Hib, and HPV.
• Inclusivity: People with compromised immune systems can use them. These vaccines are often more effective than live attenuated vaccines in people with weakened immune systems.

Here are some of the potential risks of subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines:

• Potency: These vaccines may not always elicit as robust a reaction as live attenuated vaccines.
• Side effects: Some people may experience mild side effects after receiving these vaccines, such as fever or injection site soreness. However, the risk of serious side effects from these vaccines is very low.

Researchers are still studying subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines, which are a relatively new type of vaccine. However, they have the potential to be a safe and effective way to prevent a variety of diseases.

The late 20th century marked the advent of these advanced vaccine types. The first subunit vaccine was developed in the 1960s. The hepatitis B vaccine, developed in 1986, was one of the pioneering subunit vaccines.

There is active research aiming to refine the efficacy and safety of these vaccines. We direct a significant part of this research towards developing vaccines for conditions not currently preventable, such as HIV and malaria.

Overall, subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines represent a promising new approach to vaccination. 

1. Toxoid vaccines

Toxoid vaccines use a weakened toxin from bacteria to trigger an immune response in the body. The toxin, called a toxoid, becomes harmless when we treat it with heat or chemicals. To prevent diseases caused by toxins, such as tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis, we use toxoid vaccines.

How Toxoid Vaccines Work

When the immune system receives a toxoid vaccine, it recognizes it as foreign and produces antibodies to combat it. These antibodies will bind to the toxoid and neutralize it, preventing it from causing disease.

Benefits of Toxoid Vaccines

• Safety: Toxoid vaccines are generally safe and have been in use for many years. 
• Versatility: Toxoid vaccines are usable in people with weakened immune systems. These are also often used in combination with other vaccines to provide more comprehensive protection. For example, the DTaP vaccine is a combination vaccine that protects against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis.
• Specificity: Toxoid vaccines target specific toxins, so they can prevent diseases that other vaccines cannot.

Potential Risks of Toxoid Vaccines

• Comparative Efficacy: Toxoid vaccines may not be as effective as live attenuated vaccines.
• Side Effects: Some may have mild side effects from a toxoid vaccine, like a slight fever or pain in one area. However, the risk of serious side effects from toxoid vaccines is very low.

History of Toxoid Vaccines

Scientists developed the first toxoid vaccine for tetanus in the early 20th century. Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin developed this vaccine, and people still use it today.

Scientists have developed other toxoid vaccines, such as the diphtheria vaccine, pertussis vaccine and tetanus vaccine. These vaccines have helped to significantly reduce the incidence of these diseases.

Research on Toxoid Vaccines

Scientists are working on creating new vaccines for diseases like cholera and plague that currently have no prevention methods.

Toxoid vaccines provide a safe and effective way to prevent diseases caused by toxins. They have used them for many years and they have helped save millions of lives. Toxoid vaccines have played a major role in eradicating diseases such as diphtheria.

I would also add that scientists are developing new toxoid vaccines against other diseases, such as cholera and plague. These vaccines are still in the early stages of development, but they have the potential to save millions of lives.

1. mRNA vaccines 

mRNA Vaccines

mRNA vaccines are new vaccines that teach cells how to make a specific protein. This protein is for a virus or bacteria. The immune system recognizes this protein as a foreign invader and produces antibodies to fight it off.

How mRNA Vaccines Work

Lipid nanoparticles package a small piece of mRNA to create mRNA vaccines. The mRNA has instructions for making a protein on the virus or bacterium’s surface that the vaccine targets.

The lipid nanoparticles deliver the mRNA to the cells when injecting the mRNA vaccine into the body. The cells then read the mRNA and use it to make the protein. The cells then display the protein on their surface, where the immune system recognizes it.

The immune system then produces antibodies against the protein. These antibodies will bind to the protein and neutralize it, preventing the virus or bacterium from infecting the cells.

Benefits of mRNA Vaccines

• mRNA vaccines offer a number of potential benefits over traditional vaccines:
• Clinical trials have shown that mRNA vaccines are safe.
• mRNA vaccines work well against infections caused by viruses or bacteria.
• In response to emerging pathogens, scientists can produce mRNA vaccines rapidly.
• We can store some mRNA vaccines at room temperature. This makes their distribution easy.
• mRNA vaccines can target many types of viruses and bacteria.
• mRNA vaccines are now being used to develop vaccines against a variety of other diseases, including cancer.

Considerations and Risks

mRNA vaccines are a new technology, and there are still some unknowns about their long-term safety and efficacy. However, research so far is promising.

One potential risk of mRNA vaccines is that they could cause an allergic reaction. Scientists think the risk of this happening is very low.

Another potential risk is that mRNA vaccines could be ineffective in people with compromised immune systems. However, we need more research to determine the extent of this risk.

Overall, mRNA vaccines offer a promising new approach to vaccination. They are safe, effective, and versatile, and they have the potential to prevent a wide range of diseases.

The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines were the first mRNA vaccines to be approved. These vaccines are safe and effective against COVID-19 and have played a big part in fighting the pandemic.

mRNA vaccines have potential beyond COVID-19. mRNA vaccines can help prevent a variety of other diseases, including influenza, HIV, and malaria. With continued research, mRNA vaccines could revolutionize the way we prevent infectious diseases.

1. Viral vector vaccines 

Viral vector vaccines use a weakened virus to deliver genetic material from a disease-causing virus or bacterium into the body. The genetic material then instructs the body’s cells to make proteins that are specific to the disease-causing virus or bacterium. This helps the body’s immune system to develop immunity to the disease.

How Viral Vector Vaccines Work

Viral vector vaccines use a safe virus to carry genetic material from a harmful virus or bacterium into the body. We modify the vector virus so that it cannot cause any disease.

When the body receives the viral vector vaccine, the vector virus enters the cells. The vector virus then delivers the genetic material from the disease-causing virus or bacterium into the cells. Cells read genetic material and make disease-specific proteins from it.

The cells then display these proteins on their surface, and the immune system recognizes them. The immune system then produces antibodies against the proteins. These antibodies will bind to the proteins and neutralize them, preventing the disease-causing virus or bacterium from infecting the cells.

Benefits of Viral Vector Vaccines

Viral vector vaccines offer a number of potential benefits over traditional vaccines:

• Safety: Viral vector vaccines were safe in clinical trials.
• Viral vector vaccines worked well in stopping infections caused by specific viruses or bacteria.
• Rapid production: We can make Viral vector vaccines very quickly to target emerging pathogens.
• Storage: Many viral vector vaccines are storable at room temperature. This makes them easier to distribute.
• Versatility: We can design Viral vector vaccines to target a variety of viruses and bacteria.

Considerations and Potential Risks

Viral vector vaccines are a new technology, and there are still some unknowns about their long-term safety and efficacy. Research done so far is promising.

One potential risk of viral vector vaccines is that they could cause an allergic reaction. Scientists believe this risk to be very low.

Another potential risk is that viral vector vaccines could be ineffective in people with compromised immune systems. However, more research will help determine the extent of this risk.

Overall, viral vector vaccines offer a promising new approach to vaccination. They are safe, effective, and versatile, and they have the potential to prevent a wide range of diseases.

The regulatory authorities have approved the Oxford-AstraZeneca and Janssen COVID-19 vaccines as the first viral vector vaccines for human use. These vaccines are safe and effective against COVID-19 and have played a big part in fighting the pandemic.

Viral vector vaccines have potential beyond COVID-19. Scientists are developing viral vector vaccines to prevent a variety of other diseases, including HIV, malaria, and Zika. With continued research, viral vector vaccines could revolutionize the way we prevent infectious diseases.

1. Combination vaccines 

Combination Vaccines

Combination vaccines are a type of vaccine that combines the components of two or more vaccines into a single shot. One shot can protect against many diseases, making it easier and less bothersome for patients.

Examples of Combination Vaccines

Some examples of combination vaccines include:

• MMR vaccine: This vaccine protects against measles, mumps, and rubella.
• DTaP vaccine: This vaccine protects against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis.
• Polio vaccine: This vaccine protects against poliomyelitis.
• Hib vaccine: This vaccine protects against Haemophilus influenzae type b, which can cause meningitis and other serious infections.
• Rotavirus vaccine: This vaccine protects against rotavirus, which is a common cause of severe diarrhea in infants and young children.
• Varicella vaccine: This vaccine protects against chickenpox.

Benefits of Combination Vaccines

Combination vaccines offer a number of benefits, including:

• Convenience: A single shot can protect against multiple diseases, which can save time and money for patients and healthcare providers.
• Reduced discomfort: Fewer shots can lead to less discomfort for patients, especially children.
• Improved compliance: Combination vaccines help to improve vaccination compliance as patients can get more than just one vaccine.
• Efficacy: Combination vaccines are just as effective as individual vaccines in preventing diseases. Viral vector vaccines are now being used to develop vaccines against a variety of other diseases, including cancer.

Risks of Combination Vaccines

Combination vaccines, like all vaccines, can have some side effects. However, these side effects are usually mild and go away on their own. Some common side effects of combination vaccines include:

• Soreness at the injection site
• Mild fever
• Redness at the injection site
• Fatigue
• Irritability

Overall, combination vaccines are a safe and effective way to protect against multiple diseases with a single vaccination. They offer a number of benefits over individual vaccines, including convenience, reduced discomfort, and improved compliance. If you have any questions or concerns about combination vaccines, talk to your doctor.

3. Development and Approval Process for Vaccines

Preclinical Studies:

Before progressing to human trials, a potential vaccine undergoes rigorous preclinical tests. These evaluations take place in laboratories and often involve animal studies using subjects like mice or monkeys. Our primary objective at this stage is to ascertain if the vaccine can elicit an immune response. Another objective is to determine its safety profile.

Clinical Trials:

The conclusive step in vaccine development is a Clinical Trial. A successful Clinical Trial results in an approval for public use of the vaccine. We structure clinical trials into distinct phases. Each phase helps assess specific facets of the vaccine’s safety and efficacy.

After demonstrating potential in preclinical assessments, a vaccine moves on to the human testing phase, typically divided into four stages:

Phase 1 Clinical Trials:

This phase marks the inception of human testing. We give the vaccine to several dozen healthy volunteers. The primary objective is to gauge the vaccine’s safety and pinpoint the optimal dosage. The procedure for Phase 1 trials unfolds in three key stages:

• Screening: We make the participants undergo health evaluations to ensure they’re in good health. We screen for Any medical condition that might react adversely to the vaccine.

• Dose-finding: The participants receive varying doses of the vaccine to identify the optimal amount that is both safe and effective.

• Safety monitoring: We closely observe all vaccinated  volunteers. We document all side effects.

Should the vaccine’s safety profile remain intact and it’s well-tolerated during phase 1, the process advances to phase 2 trials.

• Advantages of phase 1 trials encompass their capacity to:
• Unearth potential safety issues early on.
• Establish the most effective dosage.
• Offer insights into the vaccine’s mechanism within the body.
• However, there are inherent risks to consider:
• Unforeseen side effects might emerge.
• There’s no guarantee of the vaccine’s efficacy at this stage.
• The vaccine may pose safety risks to certain individuals.

Phase I Overview:

We use 20 to 100 participants in this phase to confirm the vaccine’s safety. We observe the immune responses it induces, and finalize the most appropriate dosage.

Phase II Clinical Trials:

Phase II broadens the scope of testing, involving several hundred participants. We  evaluate the vaccine’s safety and efficacy on a larger scale. We explore side effects in more detail, and reaffirm the appropriateness of the proposed doses.

During Phase II trials, the procedure typically bifurcates into:

• Efficacy Testing: We closely observe participants  to see if they are still susceptibile to the disease.

• Safety Monitoring: We observe participants for any potential adverse reactions or side effects from the vaccine.

A successful Phase II, wherein the vaccine showcases both safety and efficacy, paves the way for the expansive Phase III trials.

Perceived advantages of Phase II trials include:

• Validating the vaccine’s safety amongst a more diverse set of participants.
• Determining its efficacy in staving off the target disease.
• Gleaning insights into the duration of the vaccine’s protective effects.
• However, Phase II isn’t without its potential pitfalls:
• There’s always the possibility of encountering previously unknown side effects.
• Effectiveness of the vaccine isn’t a guarantee.
• Certain individuals might still find the vaccine incompatible with their health profile.

Phase III Clinical Trials:

We observe thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands, of participants during Phase III trial.

Phase III is a pivotal step in the vaccine development process. In this phase, we test the vaccine’s safety and efficacy against a control group. We give a placebo to the control group.

Phase III trials are both extensive and intensive. They offer insights into the vaccine’s performance in diverse real-world scenarios.

The structure of Phase III trials generally unfolds as follows:

• Efficacy Testing: We randomly assign participants to either get the vaccine or a placebo. Then we observe both groups for any signs of disease the vaccine aims to prevent.

• Safety Monitoring: We monitor the health of all participants, regardless of whether they received the vaccine or placebo. We monitor all side effects and adverse reactions.

A Phase III trial is successful if the vaccine is safe and shows efficacy. We submit all the data to the Food And Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA will evaluate and make a decision whether to approve  the vaccine for public use or not.

Strengths of Phase III trials include:

• Validating the vaccine’s safety and efficacy across diverse and large populations.
• Gaining insights into the vaccine’s performance metrics across varied demographic groups.
• Discovering any rare side effects that might not have surfaced in earlier phases.
• Conversely, the challenges and risks associated with Phase III trials include:
• Potential emergence of unforeseen side effects.
• No guarantee of the vaccine’s effectiveness across all groups.
• Possible health conflicts in certain demographic or health-profile subsets.

Phase IV Clinical Trials (Post-marketing Surveillance):

Once a vaccine receives regulatory approval, the evaluation process doesn’t cease. In Phase IV, or post-marketing surveillance,  we monitor the vaccines performance in the general population. We track the vaccine’s safety and efficacy over an extended period and across a broader, more diverse demographic than previously studied.

The primary objectives of Phase IV trials are:

• Identification of Rare Side Effects: In large and varied populations we observe for rarer side effects. These side effects might not have been apparent in the controlled environments of earlier trial phases.

• Long-term Safety and Efficacy Monitoring: Sometimes the vaccines effect can wear off over time. Sometimes, a new variant of the disease may emerge. We study all factors related to the waning of immunity as well as anything that affects a vaccine’s effectiveness over time. This phase ensures the ongoing assessment of the vaccine’s protective benefits.

• Comparison with Other Vaccines: We analyze Post-marketing surveillance data to understand  vaccine performance  relative to others on the market.

Phase IV is an ongoing commitment to the public’s health. We ensure that the  vaccine continues to maintains its safety and efficacy standards. It also helps us adapt to any new challenges or information that may arise.

4. Challenges of Vaccine Development and Approval

The development and approval of vaccines is a complex and lengthy process that can take many years. We address a number of challenges before bringing the vaccine to market. These include:

• Time and financial constraints of clinical trials: Clinical trials are expensive and time-consuming. This can be a major challenge for the development of immunizations, especially for diseases that are not very common.

• Recruitment challenges: It can be difficult to recruit enough people to participate in clinical trials. This is especially true for vaccines that are not well-known or may have the potential for side effects.

• Potential side effects: All immunizations have a potential for side effects, even if they are rare. People may therefore hesitate in participating in clinical trials or getting a new vaccine.

• Lengthy regulatory procedures: The regulatory approval process can be lengthy and complex, which can delay the availability of new vaccines. The FDA approves applications for ‘Emergency Use Authorization’ (EUA) when needed. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also fast tracked implementation and review of immunization schedules for COVID-19 vaccines. During the pandemic, the coronavirus vaccines made by Pfizer, BionTech, Moderna and AstraZeneca, Johnson & Johnson and NovaVax.

• Post-market surveillance: We monitor approved vaccines for ongoing safety and immune responses. This can be a resource-intensive process.

Despite these challenges, the vaccine development and approval process is an essential part of protecting public health. There are a number of promising new vaccines in development because of advances in technology and research.

Here are some specific challenges that can arise during vaccine development and approval:

• Vaccine safety: It is important to ensure that vaccines are safe for use in humans. This requires extensive testing in animals and humans.

• Vaccine efficacy: We determine if the long term immunity from the vaccine is effective in preventing the targeted disease. The immune system response is also determined through testing.

• Manufacturing challenges: Vaccines can be difficult and expensive to manufacture. This is especially true for mRNA vaccines that require specialized equipment or facilities.

• Distribution challenges: Distribution of vaccines to remote or underserved areas can be a challenge. COVID vaccines required a new type of cold chain.

• Public acceptance: The public may not always accept a vaccine for an infectious disease. This can be due to fear, mis-information, or other factors.

Despite these challenges, vaccine development and approval is an important process that helps to protect people from disease. The process of vaccine development is becoming more efficient and streamlined.

The vaccine development and approval process is a complex and challenging one, but it is essential to protect public health. Vaccines nowadays are more accessible to people around the world.

Regulatory bodies that approve vaccines in different countries:

• United States: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the regulatory body that approves vaccines in the United States.
• Canada: Health Canada is the regulatory body that approves vaccines in Canada.
• European Union: The European Medicines Agency (EMA) is the regulatory body that approves vaccines in the European Union.
• Australia: The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) is the regulatory body that approves vaccines in Australia.
• United Kingdom: The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) is the regulatory body that approves vaccines in the United Kingdom.
• Brazil: The National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA)
• China: The National Medical Products Administration (NMPA)
• India: The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO)
• Japan: The Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA)
• South Africa: The South African Health Products Regulatory Authority (SAHPRA)

Here are some U.S. Regulatory Approval timeframes for vaccines in use today:

Post-market surveillance (PMS) of Vaccines in the US:

In the United States, we actively track a vaccine’s safety and performance after approval. This is called “post-market surveillance” or PMS. Specifically, when the FDA approves vaccines, such as the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines, this system ensures ongoing monitoring. 

We use PMS to detect issues like new side effects or changes in effectiveness, especially in infectious diseases. This proactive approach, as opposed to a reactionary one, gives the public an added layer of confidence.

The Food and Drug administration (FDA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) monitor all aspects of the vaccine. These and other health care institutions, emphasize the importance of PMS especially in vulnerable and diverse populations. 

To ensure community safety, we vaccinate individuals to prevent the spread of infectious diseases, especially those leading to severe complications. Often, the vaccination process involves administering a series of doses over time. This actively strengthens the immune response and provides long-term protection against specific pathogens. This means we need to keep surveying for adverse effects from primary immunization as well as secondary immunization or booster doses.

Through vigilant monitoring post-approval, including for vaccination in children and mRNA vaccine types, we detect potential issues and respond accordingly. Besides monitoring, the CDC also facilitates timely communications to the public. This approach ensures enhanced immune responses and affirms the ongoing efficacy of the vaccines, integral for disease control and prevention. The goal remains: prioritize safety while maximizing vaccine benefits.

The PMS process in the United States includes several crucial steps:

• For those vaccinated: Post-vaccination, individuals, especially those who receive the Moderna or Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccines, report any side effects. Feedback methods encompass surveys, calls, or online tools, with the aim to study immune system reactions. Tracking these reactions allows for swift interventions when necessary.
• Health professionals: Health care experts give insights on side effects observed in the vaccinated, especially related to infectious diseases. These insights help shape future vaccination campaigns In  recent “Emergency use authorizations” (EUA’s) for COVID-19 vaccines, this feedback was vital.
• Vaccine producers: Firms like Pfizer and Moderna gather data through clinical trials and other means. These studies assess long-term immune responses and the vaccine’s ability to control and prevent outbreaks. Such feedback loops ensure manufacturers remain committed to safety enhancements.
• Regulatory bodies: Institutions, including the FDA, amass data on vaccine safety and effectiveness. Such data aids the ongoing monitoring and detection of potential concerns. With this system, the FDA can maintain its role as a protector of public health, making data-driven decisions.

The information from PMS serves as an ongoing check on vaccine safety and performance. It acts as a safeguard. If any concern arises, actions like public warnings or even recalls might be necessary. It’s all about being one step ahead, anticipating issues, and acting promptly.

Immunization programs, especially concerning infectious diseases, heavily depend on PMS. We use PMS to ensure disease control, prevention, and the safe vaccination of everyone, from children to adults. It is a testament to the commitment towards ensuring that the U.S. remains at the forefront of global health safety standards.

Key benefits of PMS:

• Early detection of potential vaccine issues, critical in the era of mRNA vaccines.
• Continuous monitoring of vaccine safety, especially long-term effects, helps to adapt vaccination strategies.
• Assurance of public safety, pivotal for the control and prevention of infectious diseases, ensures the public can trust the system.
• Boosting public confidence in vaccination, underlining the importance of immunization programs, leads to healthier communities.

Here are some examples of how PMS has been used to identify safety problems with vaccines:

• In 1976, a large-scale vaccination campaign against swine flu was linked to an increased risk of Guillain-Barré syndrome. This led to the suspension of the vaccination campaign.

• In 1998, a study published in The Lancet suggested that the MMR vaccine could cause autism. This study was later retracted, but it led to a decline in vaccination rates in the United Kingdom.

• In 2009, a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine found that the H1N1 influenza vaccine was associated with an increased risk of narcolepsy in children. This led to the development of a new vaccine formulation that was not associated with this risk.
• PMS is an important tool for ensuring the safety and effectiveness of vaccines. It is a continuous process that is essential to protecting public health.

In essence, PMS remains a cornerstone in health care strategies, particularly in the United States. The emergence of the Moderna and Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccines only magnified its significance.

5. How Vaccines Train The Immune System

Vaccines act like mock infections, letting our immune system prep for actual diseases.  like certain proteins or inactive pieces of a virus or bacteria. This makes the immune system think there’s a real threat, leading it to produce specific antibodies.

Vaccines work by simulating infections, allowing the body’s immune system to prepare and defend against diseases. They introduce safe portions of a disease causing bacteria or virus into the human body, These may consist of weakened or inactive proteins or a piece of the genetic material of the pathogen.

This prompts the immune system to respond as though it were facing an actual threat. The immune system produces antibodies tailored to recognize and neutralize the specific pathogen.

The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs. All these work together to protect the body from infection from harmful pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It has two main components:

• Innate immunity: This is the body’s first line of defense against infection. It includes physical barriers like the skin, as well as cells that can engulf and destroy harmful microbes.

• Adaptive immunity: This is the body’s more specific defense against infection. It develops over time and allows the body to recognize and fight off specific pathogens.

When we give a vaccine it introduces the body to a weakened or inactive form of a virus or bacteria. This triggers the immune system to produce antibodies, which are proteins that help to fight off the infection.

The antibodies also help to create memory cells. Memory cells remember the pathogenic bacteria or virus they were exposed to. If these invade the  body again, these memory cells will quickly produce more antibodies.

In this way, vaccines train the immune system to fight off a specific disease. This can help to prevent infection or, if infection does occur, can make it less severe.

The vaccine components are handled by specialized cells that can recognize and respond specifically to each antigenic epitope. These include: 

• B-cells or B-Lymphocytes that produce antibodies specific to the pathogen. These antibodies neutralize the pathogen if it enters the body in the future and gives our bodies long term immunity.

• T-cells or T-Lymphocytes have multiple roles. Cytotoxic T-cells destroy infected cells. Helper T-cells send signals to directly kill cells infected by a foreign invader.

• Memory cells are long-lived cells that remember the pathogen. If the body is exposed to the pathogen in the future, memory cells will quickly reproduce and launch a faster, more potent defense.

Here are some of the ways that vaccines train the immune system:

• Weakened or inactive viruses or bacteria: Vaccines often contain weakened or inactive viruses or bacteria. These microbes are not able to cause disease, but they can still trigger the body’s immune system to produce antibodies.

• Toll-like receptors: Vaccines can also activate toll-like receptors, which are proteins that help the body recognize foreign invaders. Toll-like receptors once activated will send signals to the immune system to start producing antibodies.

• Adjuvants: Some vaccines contain adjuvants, which are substances that help to boost the immune response. Adjuvants can make the body produce more antibodies and make the vaccine more effective.

Herd immunity

Herd immunity is a community’s resistance to a particular disease. This defense builds up when many community members become immune to the disease, limiting its spread.

One key method of boosting herd immunity is through vaccination. 

When we vaccinate any people together, we create a barrier for the disease to spread to other people. This prevents the disease from reaching infants or people with compromised immune systems that could not receive the vaccine.

Benefits of herd immunity:

• Protects individuals who have a contraindication to vaccination.
• Reduces the overall number of cases of the disease.
• Slows the spread of the disease.
• Can potentially eradicate the disease.
• How to achieve herd immunity:
• Vaccinate as many people as possible.
• Make vaccines accessible and affordable.
• Promote vaccine awareness and education.

Herd immunity is an important public health strategy for preventing the spread of diseases. By working together to vaccinate as many people as possible, we can create a healthier community for everyone.

Here are some additional tips for promoting herd immunity:

• Talk to your doctor about vaccines and why they are important.
• Encourage friends and family to get themselves vaccinated.
• Support policies that make vaccines more accessible and affordable.

By working together, we can achieve herd immunity and protect our community from disease.

Examples of how herd immunity has helped protect people from disease:

• Polio: Polio was once a common and crippling disease. We have largely eradicated Polio thanks to vaccination. In the United States, there have been no cases of polio caused by wild poliovirus since 1979.

• Measles: Measles is a highly contagious disease that can cause serious complications, including death. Before the introduction of the measles vaccine, measles was a leading cause of death among children. Today, measles remains a major problem in many parts of the world. However it is rare in the United States thanks to vaccination.

• Rubella: Rubella is a mild disease for most people. However Rubella in pregnant women leads to serious birth defects. The rubella vaccine has helped to protect pregnant women and their babies from this disease.

• Pertussis (whooping cough): Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory disease that can cause severe coughing, vomiting, and difficulty breathing. Before the introduction of the pertussis vaccine, pertussis was a leading cause of death among infants. Today, pertussis is still a problem in some parts of the world. However it is rare in the United States because of vaccination.

• Chickenpox: Chickenpox is a common childhood illness that is usually mild, but it can be serious in some cases. The chickenpox vaccine has helped to reduce the number of cases of chickenpox and the severity of the disease.

These are just a few examples of how herd immunity has helped to protect people from disease. When we vaccinate enough people, we create a barrier that prevents the contagious disease from spreading. This helps to protect everyone, including those whom we cannot give the vaccine to.

Boosters and repeated vaccination doses

Boosters act as extra vaccine doses provided at set times to maintain our immunity level. As time passes, a vaccine’s protective effects might wane, making these top-up doses essential. On the other hand, regular vaccination means getting several vaccine doses, either one after the other or spaced out. This method becomes crucial for people more likely to catch certain illnesses, including those traveling to places with common specific diseases.

Key reasons for boosters and repeated vaccinations include:

• The natural decline of the immune response to vaccines over duration.
• Diseases like tetanus demand recurrent vaccinations to ensure continuous immunity.
• Elevated risk groups, such as frequent travelers to disease-endemic areas, might require more frequent vaccinations.

Examples of vaccines that require boosters:

• Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP) vaccine: Boosters are recommended every 10 years.
• Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine: Boosters are recommended every 20 years.
• Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine: Boosters are not usually recommended, but may be given to people who are at high risk of getting chickenpox.
• Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine: Boosters are recommended every 5 years for girls and women ages 11-26.
• Influenza vaccine: The flu vaccine is recommended every year.

It is important to follow the recommended vaccination schedule for boosters and repeated vaccination to stay protected from disease.

Age-wise recommended boosters in the US:

• Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP) vaccine: Boosters are recommended every 10 years for adults who received the full DTaP series as a child.

• Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine: Boosters are recommended every 20 years for adults who received the full MMR series as a child.

• Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine: Boosters are not usually recommended, but may be given to people who are at high risk of getting chickenpox, such as healthcare workers.

• Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine: Boosters are recommended every 5 years for girls and women ages 11-26 who received the full HPV vaccine series.

• Influenza vaccine: The flu vaccine is recommended every year for everyone 6 months of age and older.

Here are some other vaccines that may require boosters, depending on the person’s age, health, and risk factors:

• Polio vaccine: Boosters are not usually recommended, but may be given to people who are at high risk of getting polio, such as travelers to countries where polio is still common.

• Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine: Boosters are not usually recommended, but may be given to people who are at high risk of getting Hib disease, such as children with certain medical conditions.

• Meningococcal vaccine: Boosters are not usually recommended, but may be given to people who are at high risk of getting meningococcal disease, such as college students and travelers to countries where meningococcal disease is common.

• Pneumococcal vaccine: Boosters are recommended every 5 years for adults 65 years of age and older.

6. Vaccine Efficacy and Effectiveness

Vaccine efficacy measures the effectiveness of a vaccine in preventing disease during clinical trials. This is determined by comparing the percentage of disease occurrence in the vaccinated group to that in the unvaccinated group.

Factors Affecting Efficacy:

• Age: The age of the recipient can affect the vaccine’s performance. For instance, certain vaccines might be more effective in younger individuals than in older adults.

• Health Status: The overall health and immune function of an individual can influence how they respond to a vaccine. Those with compromised immune systems might not have as robust a response.

• Strain Matching: Many viruses undergo frequent mutations, such as the influenza virus. In such situations, the efficacy of a vaccine will depend on how closely the vaccine matches the currently circulating strains.

• Dosage and Schedule: The number of doses given and the interval between the doses plays a key role in determining the reliability and strength of the immune response.

It’s important to understand that the efficacy of a vaccine varies based on the specific vaccine type, the person getting it, and the strain the vaccine aims to protect against.

Here is a list of vaccines that are used in the US and their efficacy rates:

• Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP) vaccine: 97% effective against diphtheria, 94% effective against tetanus, and 80% effective against pertussis.
• Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine: 97% effective against measles, mumps, and rubella.
• Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine: 90% effective against chickenpox.
• Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine: 99% effective against cervical cancer caused by HPV types 16 and 18, 90% effective against genital warts caused by HPV types 6 and 11.
• Influenza vaccine: 40-60% effective against preventing influenza illness, 70-90% effective against preventing serious illness, hospitalization, and death from influenza.
• Polio vaccine: 99% effective against polio.
• Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine: 98% effective against Hib disease.
• Meningococcal vaccine: 95% effective against meningococcal disease.
• Pneumococcal vaccine: 70-85% effective against pneumococcal pneumonia, 60-70% effective against invasive pneumococcal disease.
• Rotavirus vaccine: 85-98% effective against rotavirus gastroenteritis.
• Hepatitis A vaccine: 95% effective against hepatitis A.
• Hepatitis B vaccine: 95% effective against hepatitis B.
• Zika virus vaccine: 93% effective against preventing symptomatic Zika infection.
• COVID-19 vaccine: The efficacy rates of COVID-19 vaccines vary depending on the specific vaccine and virus variant. Most COVID-19 vaccines effectively prevent serious illness, hospitalization, and death.
• Yellow fever vaccine: 97-99% effective against yellow fever.
• Japanese encephalitis vaccine: 80-90% effective against Japanese encephalitis.
• Typhoid vaccine: 75-85% effective against typhoid fever.
• Rabies vaccine: 99% effective against rabies if administered before exposure to the virus.
• Shingles vaccine: 51-90% effective against shingles in individuals aged 50 and older.
• Meningococcal B vaccine: 85-95% effective against meningococcal disease caused by serogroup B.
• **BCG vaccine: 70-80% effective against tuberculosis in children.
• Adenovirus vaccine: 80-90% effective against respiratory illness caused by adenovirus.
• Norovirus vaccine: 80-90% effective against preventing norovirus gastroenteritis.

**BCG Vaccine: The efficacy rate can vary depending on the specific strain of tuberculosis and the person being vaccinated.

The BCG vaccine is a live vaccine that is made from a weakened form of the tuberculosis bacteria. It is usually given to infants at birth in countries where tuberculosis is common. The vaccine helps to train the body’s immune system to fight off tuberculosis.

The BCG vaccine is not 100% effective, but it is an important tool in the fight against tuberculosis. It is estimated that the BCG vaccine has prevented millions of cases of tuberculosis and saved many lives.

Here are some factors that can affect the efficacy of the BCG vaccine:

The age at which the vaccine is given: The vaccine is most effective when given to infants.

The strain of tuberculosis: The vaccine is more effective against some strains of tuberculosis than others.

The person’s immune system: The vaccine is less effective in people with a weakened immune system.

Vaccine effectiveness 

Vaccine effectiveness is a measure of how well a vaccine prevents disease in real-world conditions.

We determine it by comparing sickness rates in vaccinated and unvaccinated groups. We also consider other factors that influence getting sick. These may include factors such as age, underlying health conditions, and exposure to the virus or bacteria.

For clarity, if a vaccine has 95% effectiveness, it means 95 out of 100 vaccinated people won’t catch the disease. The other 5 may still get sick, but this is usually because of other factors, such as a weakened immune system.

Factors that affect vaccine effectiveness

Vaccine effectiveness can vary depending on a number of factors, including:

• Age: Vaccines may be more effective in children than in adults, as children’s immune systems are still developing.

• Underlying health conditions: People with certain health conditions, such as a weakened immune system, may be less protected by vaccines.

• Exposure to the pathogen: The amount of exposure to a pathogen can influence a vaccine’s effectiveness. For example, someone who is exposed to a large amount of the virus or bacteria may be less protected by the vaccine than someone who is exposed to a smaller amount.

Why vaccine effectiveness is important

Vaccine effectiveness is important because it helps to determine how well a vaccine will protect people from disease. A vaccine with high effectiveness will provide better protection than a vaccine with low effectiveness.

How to maximize vaccine effectiveness

There are a number of things you can do  to maximize vaccine effectiveness:

• Use CDC’s recommended immunization schedule to stay up-to-date with your vaccination. This ensures you get all the necessary doses of the vaccine to help immune system develop full protection.

• Maintain good health so we can give you the vaccination. If you are sick, your immune system may not be able to respond as well to the vaccine.

• Talk to your doctor about any concerns you have about vaccines. Your doctor can help you to understand the risks and benefits of vaccination and make the best decision for you.

Vaccine effectiveness is an important factor to consider when choosing a vaccine. 

Ultimately, vaccine efficacy and effectiveness can vary depending on the vaccine, the disease, and the population being vaccinated. Both vaccine efficacy and effectiveness are typically measured over a period of time. And both also decline over time, which is why boosters are sometimes necessary.

Measuring Vaccine Effectiveness:

Effectiveness measures the performance of an intervention under real-world conditions. Efficacy comes from controlled clinical trials, while we observe effectiveness in wider public health situations. 

The distinction between them is crucial, especially in healthcare settings.  It helps us make informed decisions on vaccine distribution and policies and public health strategies. Methods used to measure vaccine effectiveness include:

• Observational Studies: Comparing disease rates in vaccinated and unvaccinated populations.

• Case-Control Studies: Comparing vaccination rates in people with the disease (cases) to those without the disease (controls).

Real-world evidence (RWE): 

Real-world evidence (RWE) involves data gathered from practical settings like health records and surveys. It’s valuable because it shows us how vaccines work outside strict trial conditions. It pulls insights from various people and places, making it more comprehensive.

Sources of Real-world evidence:

• Health Records: These include details of your shots, illnesses, and medicines.
• Surveys: These capture personal stories about vaccine experiences.
• Electronic Health Records: Electronic health details that track patient care over time.
• Claims Data: Data about medical costs, payments, including shots.
• Observational Studies: These studies watch how vaccines work as time goes on.

Real-world evidence addresses questions like:

• How effective vaccines really are in stopping sickness.
• The possible side effects from a vaccine.
• How long the protection from a vaccine lasts.
• Which groups might be more at risk of diseases.

Benefits of Real-world evidence:

• Provides insights on vaccine efficacy across broader demographics than clinical trials.
• Enables evaluation of vaccine performance over extended durations.
• Assesses vaccine efficacy under genuine conditions, such as concurrent exposure to multiple pathogens.

Challenges with Real-world evidence:

• Collection and analysis of RWE can be intricate.
• Real-world evidence might not rival the reliability of clinical trial data.
• Real-world evidence may not encapsulate the whole population’s experiences.
• Despite its challenges, RWE remains a pivotal tool for discerning real-world vaccine efficacy, influencing vaccination policies and practices.

Breakthrough Infections: 

Vaccines do not guarantee protection against a disease. So a vaccinated person will occasionally get sick with the disease in spite of having received a vaccine designed to prevent that disease. 

However, these individuals with ‘breakthrough infections’ typically exhibit milder symptoms compared to those who did not take the vaccine.

Breakthrough infections can happen for a few reasons, such as:

• Vaccines aren’t 100% effective. People with underlying health conditions might be more susceptible. People’s immune system can evolve after vaccination. 

• Altered Immune Response: Response to a vaccine can vary among individuals. The immune system can also weaken over time. If the immunity weakens over time or worsens from  age or specific health conditions, it impacts the level of protection

• Pathogen Mutation: The virus or bacteria can mutate. This reduces the vaccine’s efficacy if the pathogen changes significantly.

Additionally, breakthrough infections are more common in people who didn’t take the full vaccination dose or the recommended booster dose. They’re also more likely when there is a heavy exposure to the virus or bacteria. People with underlying health conditions may also be more susceptible.

Although rare, breakthrough infections can occur with any vaccination. It’s important to get vaccines to protect you and your family from getting sick. Vaccinations of groups of people helps prevents the spread of disease as well. 

Importantly, a vaccinated person experiencing a breakthrough infection is generally less likely to face severe illness compared to unvaccinated individuals. This happens because the vaccine has prepared their immune system to combat the disease more effectively.

Rate of Breakthrough Infections for some vaccines are listed below:

• Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP) vaccine: A study in the United States found that the rate of breakthrough pertussis infections in fully vaccinated children was 0.3%.

• Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine: A study in the United Kingdom found that the rate of breakthrough measles infections in fully vaccinated children was 0.1%.

• Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine: A study in the United States found that the rate of breakthrough chickenpox infections in fully vaccinated children was 0.3%.

• Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine: A study in the United States found that the rate of breakthrough HPV infections in fully vaccinated women was 1%.

• Influenza vaccine: The effectiveness of the influenza vaccine against preventing laboratory-confirmed influenza varies from year to year, but it is typically around 40-60%.

• Polio vaccine: There have been no reported cases of breakthrough polio infections in people who have been fully vaccinated.

• Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine: There have been no reported cases of breakthrough Hib infections in people who have been fully vaccinated.

• Meningococcal vaccine: The effectiveness of the meningococcal vaccine against preventing meningococcal disease varies from serogroup to serogroup, but it is typically around 70-90%.

• Pneumococcal vaccine: The effectiveness of the pneumococcal vaccine against preventing pneumococcal pneumonia varies from serotype to serotype, but it is typically around 70-85%.

• Rotavirus vaccine: The effectiveness of the rotavirus vaccine against preventing rotavirus gastroenteritis is typically around 85-90%.

• Hepatitis A vaccine: The effectiveness of the hepatitis A vaccine against preventing hepatitis A is typically around 95%.

• Hepatitis B vaccine: The effectiveness of the hepatitis B vaccine against preventing hepatitis B is typically around 95%.

• Zika virus vaccine: The effectiveness of the Zika virus vaccine against preventing Zika virus is typically around 60-80%.

• COVID-19 vaccine: The effectiveness of the COVID-19 vaccine against preventing symptomatic COVID-19 infection varies from vaccine to vaccine and from variant to variant, but it is typically around 70-90%. Breakthrough infections of COVID-19 can occur in people who have been vaccinated. However, the vaccine is still effective at preventing serious illness, hospitalization, and death from COVID-19.

7. Common Side Effects Of Vaccines

Vaccines, like all medicines, can result in side effects. Typically, these are mild and short-lived, indicating the body’s natural process of building immunity. Frequent side effects include:

• Injection Site Reactions: You might notice pain, redness, and swelling at the site of injection. They tend to dissipate on their own in a few days.

• Fever: Some vaccines like the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine, can cause a mild fever (up to 100.4°F). This usually subsides within days.

• Fatigue: A prevalent after-effect, fatigue typically resolves within a few days.

• Headache: Some recipients might experience headaches, which generally diminish on their own shortly.

• Muscle Pain: This is another commonly reported side effect that tends to resolve within days.

• Nausea: A rarer side effect, nausea usually disappears in a few days.

Prevalence of Common Side Effects

While the frequency of side effects can differ with each vaccine and individual, general estimates suggest:

• Pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site: Approximately 50% of vaccine recipients.
• Fever: Roughly 30% of individuals get fever with a vaccine.
• Fatigue: Occurs in 20% people getting a  vaccine.
• Headache: 15% of individuals suffer a headache from a vaccine
• Muscle pain: 10% of individuals report getting a fever after vaccination.
• Nausea: About 5% of vaccine recipients report feeling nauseous.

These figures are approximate, and actual percentages may differ based on the specific vaccine and the individual’s constitution.

Rare but serious side effects

Very occasionally, vaccines can cause more serious side effects. We monitor these rare side effects closely and study them further. 

Here is a list of some serious side effects that have been linked to vaccines :

• Anaphylaxis: Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening allergic reaction. It is a very rare side effect of vaccines.

• Guillain-Barré syndrome: Guillain-Barré syndrome is a rare neurological disorder that can cause muscle weakness and paralysis. It is a very rare side effect of some vaccines, such as the flu vaccine.

• Thrombocytopenia: Thrombocytopenia is a condition that causes low blood platelet levels. It is a very rare side effect of some vaccines, such as the MMR vaccine.
• Seizures: Seizures are a rare side effect of vaccines. The estimates for seizure are about 1 in 10,000 people. Seizures are more likely to occur in young children and in people with a history of seizures.

Reporting and Monitoring Vaccine Side Effects:

If you experience a significant side effect after receiving a vaccine, it’s vital to report it. Doing so not only aids in understanding potential reactions but also contributes to the broader safety monitoring of vaccines.

How to Report

Consultation with a Healthcare Professional

If you face any side effects, discussing with your doctor is essential. They can provide insights into the severity of the side effect and guide you further.

Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS)

This national system collects data about potential side effects post-vaccination.

• Online Reporting: Directly report the side effect on the VAERS website.
• Reporting by Phone: Call VAERS at 1-800-822-7967 and follow the instructions.

VAERS will ask you for details such as:

• Your name and contact information.
• Date and type of the vaccine received.
• Detailed symptoms of the side effect.
• Any other relevant medical conditions.

Please note that a report to VAERS doesn’t confirm that the vaccine caused the side effect. VAERS relies on people to report side effects, so not all side effects may be known.

Safety Monitoring

Post-licensure monitoring is the process of continuously monitoring the safety of vaccines after they have been licensed. This helps us detect rare side effects that may not have been observed during clinical trials.

Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD)

The Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) is a network of healthcare organizations that collects data on vaccine safety. We use this data to study the possible association between vaccines and side effects.

8. Myths and misconceptions

Vaccines are crucial in preventing infectious diseases. Yet, myths and misconceptions surrounding them can deter people from getting vaccinated. Here’s a breakdown of these myths and the reality behind them:

1. Vaccines Cause Autism

Myth: Vaccines, especially the MMR vaccine, are linked to autism.

Reality: Originating from a discredited 1998 study with procedural errors and undisclosed conflicts of interest, this myth has been debunked by numerous subsequent studies.

2. Harmful Chemicals in Vaccines

Myth: Vaccines contain unsafe toxins.

Reality: Vaccines have ingredients like water, salt, sugar, and preservatives. Some might have minimal amounts of substances like mercury, formaldehyde, or aluminum. However, these are in very safe amounts and are often found naturally in larger quantities in our environment and bodies.

3. Unnecessary Vaccination due to Rare Diseases

Myth: With many vaccine-preventable diseases becoming rare, vaccines are no longer needed.

Reality: The rarity of some diseases is due to successful vaccination campaigns. Discontinuing vaccinations could lead to these diseases becoming common again.

4. Vaccines Can Induce the Disease They Prevent

Myth: One can contract the disease from its vaccine.

Reality: Vaccines contain weakened or inactive forms of the virus or bacteria, making it impossible for them to cause the disease.

5. Overloading the Immune System with Vaccines

Myth: Multiple vaccines can overwhelm an infant’s immune system.

Reality: Infants’ immune systems are capable of handling many vaccines at once. They encounter numerous foreign substances daily that activate their immune systems.

6. Natural Immunity Supersedes Vaccine-acquired Immunity

Myth: Acquiring immunity naturally is preferable to vaccine-acquired immunity.

Reality: While natural infections can lead to immunity, they come with the risk of severe complications. Vaccines can prevent these complications without inducing the disease.

Misinformation can deter individuals from making informed decisions about vaccinations. By promoting evidence-based knowledge, we aim to ensure public health and community protection. For further queries or concerns about vaccines, always consult with healthcare professionals.

9. Cold Chain for Vaccines: Importance, Challenges & Tips For Maintaining

Vaccines are temperature-sensitive biological products. Keeping them at cold temperatures helps us retain their effectiveness. The optimal temperature for storing vaccines varies by vaccine type. Typically, most vaccines need refrigeration between 2 and 8 degrees Celsius.

The cold chain

The cold chain is a system for keeping vaccines cold from the time they are made to the time they are given to an individual. The cold chain includes:

• Refrigerators and freezers to store vaccines
• Transportation systems that can keep vaccines cold
• Trained staff who know how to handle vaccines properly

Importance of the Cold Chain

The cold chain is essential for ensuring the safety and effectiveness of vaccines. If a vaccine is  stored or transported improperly, it will lose potency and become ineffective. This can have serious consequences, as vaccines are essential for preventing infectious diseases.

Challenges to Maintaining the Cold Chain

There are a number of challenges to maintaining the cold chain, including:

• Temperature fluctuations: All vaccines require a certain temperature for storage. Exposure to too much heat or cold makes a vaccine lose its effectiveness against illnesses.
• Power outages: Power outages can cause refrigerators and freezers to fail, which can lead to temperature fluctuations.
• Human error: Human error can lead to temperature fluctuations. Store vaccines in the correct location. Properly monitor the temperature of the equipment.
• Specialized equipment: Certain vaccines require specific storage equipment, such as specialized freezers or refrigerators. This equipment can be costly and may require regular maintenance.
• Trained personnel: Effective cold chain management requires trained personnel who are familiar with the equipment and temperature monitoring procedures.
• Reliable transportation: Transport vaccines according to their manufacturers guidelines. This can be challenging in areas with inadequate infrastructure.

Tips for maintaining the cold chain

• Use specialized equipment: Use manufacturer recommended freezers or refrigerators for storing vaccines. Regularly calibrate the equipment to ensure that they are maintaining the correct temperature.
• Monitor the temperature: Regularly monitor the temperature of the vaccines to ensure that they are staying at the correct temperature. Using a thermometer or temperature data logger is standard procedure.
• Train personnel: Train personnel who are responsible for maintaining the cold chain for vaccines. Training involves proper use of equipment, temperature monitoring procedures, and contingency plans in case of a cold chain disruption.
• Use a reliable transportation system: Use a transportation system that can ensure that vaccines remain at the correct temperature. This may require the use of insulated containers or temperature-controlled vehicles.
• Invest in cold chain infrastructure: Get refrigerators, freezers, and other equipment recommended by the manufacturer. Training personnel on how to use the cold chain infrastructure.
• Develop contingency plans: This includes plans for dealing with power outages, natural disasters, and other disruptions to the cold chain.
• Work with partners: This includes working with governments, non-profit organizations, and other stakeholders to improve vaccine storage and distribution.

10. Global Impact & Herd Immunity

Global Eradication Efforts

Over the decades, vaccines have played a pivotal role in global health initiatives aimed at eradicating diseases:

• Smallpox: Once a major global threat, smallpox was declared eradicated in 1980 thanks to an aggressive worldwide vaccination campaign.
• Polio: Polio cases have decreased by over 99% since 1988, with eradication efforts still ongoing in a few endemic areas.

Benefits to Global Health

• Reduced Mortality: Many deadly diseases of the past are now preventable, leading to decreased child and adult mortality rates.
• Economic Impact: Healthier populations contribute more effectively to their economies. Countries save on medical costs and reduce the loss of productivity from illness.
• Herd Immunity: When a significant portion of a community is immunized against a contagious disease, it becomes harder for the disease to spread, even among those who are not vaccinated. This phenomenon is known as herd immunity.

• Protecting Vulnerable Populations: Herd immunity is especially important for individuals who cannot be vaccinated, such as those with certain health conditions or weakened immune systems. They rely on others being vaccinated to reduce their risk of disease exposure.

• Disease Thresholds: For herd immunity to be effective, a certain percentage of the population needs to be vaccinated. This percentage varies by disease but is often above 90%.

Case studies of eradicated diseases

There are several diseases that have been eradicated thanks to vaccination. These include:

• Smallpox: Smallpox was a deadly disease that caused millions of deaths each year. It was eradicated in 1980 thanks to a global vaccination campaign.

• Polio: Polio is a disease that can cause paralysis. It was eradicated in most parts of the world, but it still exists in a few countries.

• Rinderpest: Rinderpest is a disease that affects cattle. It was eradicated in 2011 thanks to a global vaccination campaign.

• Guinea worm disease: Guinea worm disease is a disease that causes painful sores. It was eradicated in 2021 thanks to a global vaccination campaign.

• Measles: Measles is a highly contagious respiratory illness that can cause serious complications, including pneumonia, encephalitis, and death. Before the introduction of the measles vaccine, measles was one of the leading causes of death in children. In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared measles eradicated from the world. However, there have been outbreaks of measles in recent years due to low vaccination rates.

• Rubella: Rubella is a mild illness that can cause fever, rash, and swollen lymph nodes. However, rubella can be serious for pregnant women, and it can cause birth defects in babies. In 2015, the WHO declared rubella eliminated from the Americas.

• Yellow fever: Yellow fever is a mosquito-borne illness that can cause fever, jaundice, and bleeding. It is a serious disease that can be fatal. Before the introduction of the yellow fever vaccine, yellow fever was a major public health problem in many parts of the world. Today, yellow fever is still a problem in some parts of Africa and South America, but it is much less common than it used to be.

• Diphtheria: Diphtheria is a respiratory illness that can cause a thick coating to form in the throat and airways. This can make it difficult to breathe and swallow. Diphtheria can also cause heart failure and paralysis. Before the introduction of the diphtheria vaccine, diphtheria was a leading cause of death in children. Today, diphtheria is rare in countries with high vaccination rates.

• Tetanus: Tetanus is a serious illness that can cause muscle stiffness and spasms. It is caused by a bacteria that can enter the body through a cut or wound. Tetanus can be fatal, but it is easily prevented by vaccination.

Economic Impact of Vaccination

Vaccination is one of the most cost-effective health strategies available. It has been shown to prevent millions of deaths and save trillions of dollars in economic productivity.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that vaccination prevents an average of 2.5 million deaths and 1.5 billion illnesses each year in the United States. This translates to economic savings of up to $1 trillion annually.

Some of the economic benefits of vaccination include:

• Reduced sick days: Vaccinations can prevent people from getting sick, which means they are less likely to miss work or school. This can lead to increased productivity and economic output.
• Healthcare savings: Vaccinations can prevent the spread of diseases, which can lead to lower healthcare costs. For example, the measles vaccine can prevent up to $1,500 in healthcare costs per person.
• Increased tax revenue: A healthier workforce contributes more in taxes, which benefits the economy. For example, a study by the World Bank found that vaccination can lead to an increase in tax revenue of up to 1% of GDP.
• Alleviation of poverty: Vaccination can help to reduce poverty by improving the health of children and adults. This can lead to increased productivity and earning potential, which can help people to escape poverty.

Vaccination benefits both developed and developing nations:

In developed countries, vaccination can help to reduce healthcare costs and boost productivity. As the global population grows and ages, the demand for vaccination is also expected to rise. This is because older people are more susceptible to diseases, and vaccination can help to protect them.

The COVID-19 pandemic has shown how important vaccination is for protecting public health and the economy. Vaccination has helped to reduce the number of cases, hospitalizations, and deaths from COVID-19. It has also helped to keep businesses open and the economy running.

The CDC recommends that all people get vaccinated against COVID-19, regardless of their age or health status. Vaccination is the best way to protect yourself from COVID-19 and its serious complications.

Vaccination is a safe and effective way to protect yourself and your community from infectious diseases. It is one of the most cost-effective health strategies available.

Here are some specific examples of the impact of vaccination on infant mortality and prolongation of life:

• Measles: Before the introduction of the measles vaccine, measles was a leading cause of death in children. In the United States, for example, measles caused an estimated 450 deaths per year. Since the introduction of the measles vaccine in 1963, the number of measles deaths has declined to zero.

• Polio: Before the introduction of the polio vaccine, polio was a major cause of paralysis and death in children. In the United States, for example, polio caused an estimated 35,000 cases of paralysis per year. Since the introduction of the polio vaccine in 1955, there have been no cases of polio caused by wild poliovirus in the United States.

• Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib): Hib is a bacteria that can cause meningitis, pneumonia, and other serious infections. In the United States, Hib was a leading cause of death in children under 5 years old before the introduction of the Hib vaccine in 1985. Since the introduction of the Hib vaccine, the number of Hib deaths has declined by 99%.

Effects on lifespan and population health

Vaccination has had a major impact on lifespan and population health. Thanks to vaccination, people are living longer and healthier lives.

For example, in the United States, the average life expectancy has increased by 30 years since 1900. This is due in part to the introduction of vaccines against diseases such as polio, measles, and mumps.

11. Vaccination Schedule and Guidelines

As per the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), vaccination remains one the most effective ways to prevent infectious diseases. The CDC recommends that people get vaccinated according to the latest immunization schedule. 

The CDC updates the immunization schedule annually bases it on the latest scientific evidence. The recommended vaccines vary depending on the age group and health status. They are updated based on the latest data from clinical trials as well as biostatistics published in the Morbidity and Mortality Report (MMWR).

The CDC website has primary vaccination schedules as well as  catch up vaccination schedules for each age group on its website. Here are some of the recommended vaccines for different age groups in the United States:

Recommended Vaccination for Infants and toddlers:

• Hepatitis B vaccine (FDA-approved in 1988)
• Rotavirus vaccine (FDA-approved in 1998)
• Diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (DTaP) vaccine (FDA-approved in 1997)
• Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine (FDA-approved in 1985)
• Polio vaccine (FDA-approved in 1955)
• Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) (FDA-approved in 2000)
• Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine (FDA-approved in 1971)
• Varicella vaccine (FDA-approved in 1995)
• Inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV) (FDA-approved in 1945)
• COVID-19 vaccine (FDA-approved Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) in 2020)

We vaccinate children to prevent them from getting multiple childhood infections. Many vaccinations include a combination of vaccines at the same visit. Some vaccines when given together help boost immune response to other components of the vaccines.

Recommended Vaccination for Children and Adolescents:

• DTaP vaccine
• PCV vaccine
• MMR vaccine
• Varicella vaccine
• IIV vaccine
• Meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV) (FDA-approved in 2005)
• Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine (FDA-approved in 2006)
• Zoster vaccine (FDA-approved in 2006)

Recommended Vaccination for Adults:

• Tdap vaccine (FDA-approved in 2005)
• PCV vaccine (for certain high-risk adults)
• MMR vaccine
• IIV vaccine
• Shingles vaccine
• Hepatitis A and B vaccines
• Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine (mRNA vaccine, FDA-approved in 2020)
• Moderna COVID-19 vaccine (mRNA vaccine, FDA-approved in 2020)

The recommended vaccines may also vary depending on the individual’s health status, travel history, and other factors. It is important to talk to your doctor about the best vaccination schedule for you.

Vaccines are a safe and effective health care initiative. They have prevented millions of deaths and illnesses every year. The benefits of vaccination far outweigh the risks.

Some of the benefits of immunization programs include:

• Protection from infectious diseases
• Reduced risk of hospitalization and death
• Improved quality of life long term
• Reduced economic burden
• Boosted immune systems
• Immune responses that can protect against future infections

If you have any questions or concerns about vaccination, talk to your doctor. They can help you make the best decision for your health.

Here are some additional tips for staying up-to-date on vaccinations:

• Check with your doctor regularly to see if you need any new or updated vaccines.
• Keep a record of your vaccinations so you can easily share it with your doctor.
• Update your vaccine card before traveling to foreign countries.
• Talk to your doctor about the risks and benefits of vaccination for pregnant women and breastfeeding women.

Vaccination is a safe and effective way to protect yourself and your community from infectious diseases. It is one of the most important things you can do to stay healthy.

12. Travel vaccines

Travel Vaccines are one of the best ways to protect yourself from infectious diseases when traveling to a foreign country. The specific vaccines you need will depend on the countries you are visiting and the activities you will be doing.

Here are some common travel vaccines:

• Hepatitis A vaccine: This vaccine protects against hepatitis A, a liver disease that can cause fever, jaundice, and abdominal pain. It is recommended for all travelers, but especially those visiting developing countries. The vaccine is given in two doses, 6 months apart.

• Hepatitis B vaccine: This vaccine protects against hepatitis B, a serious liver disease that can cause chronic infection, liver cancer, and death. It is recommended for all travelers, but especially those who may be exposed to blood or body fluids, such as through sexual contact or needle sharing. The vaccine is given in three doses, over a 6-month period.

• Typhoid vaccine: This vaccine protects against typhoid fever, a serious illness that can cause fever, headache, and diarrhea. It is recommended for travelers to developing countries, especially those who will be staying in areas with poor sanitation. The vaccine is given in one or two doses, depending on the type of vaccine.

• Yellow fever vaccine: This vaccine protects against yellow fever, a serious and sometimes fatal illness. It is recommended for travelers to countries where yellow fever is present, especially those who will be spending time in rural areas. The vaccine is given in one dose.

• Japanese encephalitis vaccine: This vaccine protects against Japanese encephalitis, a serious mosquito-borne illness. It is recommended for travelers to areas of Asia where Japanese encephalitis is present, especially those who will be spending time in rural areas. The vaccine is given in three doses, over a 4-week period.

• Meningococcal vaccine: This vaccine protects against meningococcal meningitis, a serious infection of the lining of the brain and spinal cord. It is recommended for travelers to areas where meningococcal meningitis is present, especially those who will be traveling with young children. The vaccine is given in one or two doses, depending on the type of vaccine.

• Rabies vaccine: This vaccine protects against rabies, a serious and often fatal illness that is spread through the bite of an infected animal. It is recommended for travelers who will be spending time in areas where rabies is present, especially those who will be interacting with animals. The vaccine is given in a series of four doses.

It is important to talk to your doctor about which travel vaccines are right for you. They can help you determine the risks of getting sick in the countries you are visiting and recommend the appropriate vaccines.

The effectiveness of travel vaccines varies depending on the vaccine. Some vaccines, such as the hepatitis A vaccine, are very effective, while others, such as the yellow fever vaccine, are less effective.

The time frame for getting travel vaccines also varies depending on the vaccine. Some vaccines, such as the typhoid vaccine, can be given just a few weeks before travel, while others, such as the Japanese encephalitis vaccine, need to be given months in advance.

Some travel vaccines require booster shots. The frequency of booster shots also varies depending on the vaccine.

It is important to follow your doctor’s instructions carefully when getting travel vaccines. This will help to ensure that you are protected from the diseases you are most at risk of getting.

Considerations for Travel Vaccines in special populations

Certain populations may need additional vaccines. These include:

• Pregnant women: Pregnant women should get the flu vaccine and the Tdap vaccine.

• Immunocompromised individuals: Immunocompromised individuals may need more vaccines than healthy individuals. These individuals may also need to get vaccines more often.

• People with chronic health conditions: People with chronic health conditions, such as asthma or diabetes, may need additional vaccines.

It is important to talk to your doctor about the recommended vaccines for you.

The vaccination schedule and guidelines are constantly being updated as new vaccines are developed and new information becomes available. It is important to stay up-to-date on the latest recommendations.

You can get the latest vaccination schedule and guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC website also has information about specific vaccines and travel vaccines.

13. Current and Upcoming Vaccines Novel vaccines in development

There are many novel vaccines in development. These vaccines use new technologies to target different diseases. Some of the most promising novel vaccines include:

• mRNA vaccines: mRNA vaccines are a new type of vaccine that uses messenger RNA (mRNA) to train the body’s immune system to fight disease. mRNA vaccines are being developed for a variety of diseases, including COVID-19, influenza, and HIV.

• Viral vector vaccines: Viral vector vaccines use a weakened or inactive virus to deliver genetic material from another virus into the body. This genetic material then trains the body’s immune system to fight the target virus. Viral vector vaccines are being developed for a variety of diseases, including Ebola, Zika, and malaria.

• DNA vaccines: DNA vaccines use DNA to train the body’s immune system to fight disease. DNA vaccines are being developed for a variety of diseases, including cancer and HIV.

• Nanoparticle vaccines: Nanoparticle vaccines use nanoparticles to deliver vaccines to the body. Nanoparticles are small particles that can be used to target specific cells in the body. Nanoparticle vaccines are being developed for a variety of diseases, including cancer and HIV.

Here are some novel vaccines in development and the companies pursuing it along with their ticker symbols:

• Vir Biotechnology: Vir Biotechnology is developing a COVID-19 vaccine called VIR-7838. The vaccine is based on a technology called a capsid-stabilized virus-like particle (VLP). VLPs are made to look like viruses, but they do not contain any harmful material. The company is also developing a vaccine against HIV. [Ticker Symbol: VIR]

• Moderna: Moderna is developing a COVID-19 vaccine called mRNA-1273. The vaccine is based on a technology called messenger RNA (mRNA). mRNA is a molecule that can be used to teach the body’s cells how to make a protein. The company is also developing vaccines against influenza, Zika, and CMV. [Ticker Symbol: MRNA]

• BioNTech: BioNTech is developing a COVID-19 vaccine called BNT162b2. The vaccine is also based on mRNA technology. The company is also developing vaccines against cancer and other diseases. [Ticker Symbol: BNTX]

• Novavax: Novavax is developing a COVID-19 vaccine called NVX-CoV2373. The vaccine is based on a technology called a recombinant nanoparticle vaccine. Recombinant nanoparticles are made in the lab and are designed to look like viruses. The company is also developing vaccines against influenza and RSV. [Ticker Symbol: NVAX]

• Sanofi: Sanofi is developing a COVID-19 vaccine called VLA2001. The vaccine is based on a technology called a DNA vaccine. DNA vaccines are made from pieces of DNA that code for the proteins of a virus. The company is also developing vaccines against Ebola, malaria, and HIV. [Ticker Symbol: SNY]

• AstraZeneca: AstraZeneca is developing a novel vaccine against malaria. The vaccine is based on a technology called a DNA vaccine. [Ticker Symbol: AZN]

• CanSino Biologics: CanSino Biologics is developing a novel vaccine against COVID-19. The vaccine is based on a technology called a recombinant protein vaccine. [Ticker Symbol: CNBS]

• Inovio Pharmaceuticals: Inovio Pharmaceuticals is developing a novel vaccine against a variety of diseases, including cancer, HIV, and Zika. The company’s vaccines are based on a technology called a DNA vaccine.

• Valneva: Valneva is developing a novel vaccine against Lyme disease. The vaccine is based on a technology called a live attenuated vaccine. [Ticker Symbol: VALN]

• GlaxoSmithKline: GlaxoSmithKline is developing a novel vaccine against HIV. The vaccine is based on a technology called a DNA vaccine.

Vaccines for emerging diseases

There are also many vaccines in development for emerging diseases. Emerging diseases are diseases that are new or that are rapidly spreading. Some of the most important emerging diseases include:

• COVID-19: COVID-19 is a respiratory illness caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. There are several vaccines available for COVID-19, and many more are in development.

• Influenza: Influenza is a respiratory illness caused by the influenza virus. There are annual vaccines available for influenza, and many more are in development.

• Zika: Zika is a mosquito-borne illness that can cause birth defects. There are no vaccines available for Zika, but several are in development.

• Ebola: Ebola is a deadly virus that can cause hemorrhagic fever. There are several vaccines available for Ebola, and many more are in development.

• Malaria: Malaria is a mosquito-borne illness that can be fatal. There are several vaccines available for malaria, but none are completely effective.

• Here are some vaccines for emerging diseases and the companies pursuing it along with their ticker symbols:

• Dengue vaccine: There are several dengue vaccines in development, including one from Sanofi (SNY), one from Takeda (TAK), and one from Dynavax Technologies (DVAX).

• Zika vaccine: There are several Zika vaccines in development, including one from Johnson & Johnson (JNJ), one from Inovio Pharmaceuticals (INO), and one from Bavarian Nordic (BVN).

• Chikungunya vaccine: There is one Chikungunya vaccine in development, from Valneva (VALN).

• Yellow fever vaccine: There are several yellow fever vaccines in development, including one from Sanofi and one from Bavarian Nordic.

• Rabies vaccine: There are several rabies vaccines in development, including one from Sanofi and one from GlaxoSmithKline (GSK).

• Marburg virus vaccine: There is one Marburg virus vaccine in development, from Bavarian Nordic.

• Ebola virus vaccine: There are several Ebola virus vaccines in development, including one from Johnson & Johnson, one from Merck (MRK), and one from Novavax.

• Nipah virus vaccine: There is one Nipah virus vaccine in development, from Inovio Pharmaceuticals.

• Lassa fever vaccine: There is one Lassa fever vaccine in development, from Inovio Pharmaceuticals.

• AstraZeneca: AstraZeneca is developing a novel vaccine against malaria. The vaccine is based on a technology called a DNA vaccine. [Ticker Symbol: AZN]

• CanSino Biologics: CanSino Biologics is developing a novel vaccine against COVID-19. The vaccine is based on a technology called a recombinant protein vaccine. [Ticker Symbol: CNBS]

• Inovio Pharmaceuticals: Inovio Pharmaceuticals is developing a novel vaccine against a variety of diseases, including cancer, HIV, and Zika. The company’s vaccines are based on a technology called a DNA vaccine.

• Valneva: Valneva is developing a novel vaccine against Lyme disease. The vaccine is based on a technology called a live attenuated vaccine. [Ticker Symbol: VALN]

• GlaxoSmithKline: GlaxoSmithKline is developing a novel vaccine against HIV. The vaccine is based on a technology called a DNA vaccine.

• Serum Institute of India: The Serum Institute of India is developing a vaccine against monkeypox. The vaccine is based on a technology called a live attenuated vaccine.

• Dynavax Technologies: Dynavax Technologies is developing a vaccine against tuberculosis. The vaccine is based on a technology called a protein subunit vaccine.

• Emergent BioSolutions: Emergent BioSolutions is developing a vaccine against anthrax. The vaccine is based on a technology called a live attenuated vaccine.

• SIGA Technologies: SIGA Technologies is developing a vaccine against smallpox. The vaccine is based on a technology called a live attenuated vaccine.

• PaxVax Technologies: PaxVax Technologies is developing a vaccine against cholera. The vaccine is based on a technology called a live attenuated vaccine.

These are just a few of the many vaccines that are being developed for emerging diseases. The field of vaccine development is rapidly evolving, and there are many promising new vaccines on the horizon.

It is important to note that these vaccines are still in development, and their safety and efficacy have not yet been fully established. However, they represent a promising new approach to vaccination, and they could offer a way to protect people from a variety of diseases.

14. Controversies and Ethical Considerations Vaccine hesitancy

Vaccine hesitancy is the reluctance or refusal to vaccinate despite the availability of safe and effective vaccines. There are many reasons why people may be hesitant to vaccinate, including:

• Fear of side effects: Some people may be afraid of the side effects of vaccines, even though these side effects are usually mild and go away on their own.

• Misinformation: Some people may have been exposed to misinformation about vaccines, such as the myth that vaccines cause autism.

• Lack of trust: Some people may not trust the government or the pharmaceutical companies that produce vaccines.

• Personal beliefs: Some people may have personal beliefs that prevent them from getting vaccinated, such as religious beliefs or beliefs about natural immunity.

• Cultural factors: In some cultures, there may be a distrust of vaccines or a belief that they are not necessary.

• Access barriers: Some people may not have access to vaccines, such as those who live in rural areas or who do not have health insurance.

• Language barriers: Some people may not be able to understand the information about vaccines because they do not speak the language.

Vaccine hesitancy is a major public health challenge. It can lead to outbreaks of preventable diseases, such as measles and polio.

Mandatory vaccination policies

Some countries have mandatory vaccination policies, which means that people are required to get vaccinated against certain diseases. Mandatory vaccination policies are controversial, and there are many arguments for and against them.

Arguments in favor of mandatory vaccination policies include:

• They can help to protect people from preventable diseases.
• They can help to protect public health.
• They can help to reduce the spread of disease.

Arguments against mandatory vaccination policies include:

• They violate people’s individual rights.
• They can lead to distrust of the government and the medical community.
• They can be difficult to enforce.

The decision of whether or not to implement mandatory vaccination policies is a complex one. There are many factors to consider, such as the severity of the disease, the risk of transmission, and the potential benefits and harms of the policy.

Ethical issues in vaccine trials

There are many ethical issues that arise in vaccine trials. Some of these issues include:

• The use of placebos: In some vaccine trials, participants are randomly assigned to receive either the vaccine or a placebo. The placebo is an inactive substance that does not contain the vaccine. This can be a difficult ethical decision, as it means that some participants will not receive the vaccine, even though they may need it.

• The risk of side effects: Vaccine trials are designed to test the safety and effectiveness of vaccines. However, there is always a risk of side effects, even with safe and effective vaccines. This can be a difficult ethical decision, as it means that participants may be exposed to risks, even if they are not receiving the vaccine.

• The informed consent process: Participants in vaccine trials must give their informed consent before participating. This means that they must be told about the risks and benefits of the trial, and they must agree to participate voluntarily. This can be a difficult ethical decision, as it is important to ensure that participants are fully informed about the risks and benefits of the trial before they agree to participate. The informed consent process for vaccine trials can be complex and difficult to understand. This can be especially challenging for people who are not fluent in the language of the trial or who have limited education.

• Vulnerable populations: Vaccine trials are often conducted on vulnerable populations, such as children, pregnant women, and people with disabilities. These populations may be more susceptible to the risks of vaccine trials, and they may also have less power to make decisions about their participation.

• Data privacy: The data collected in vaccine trials is often sensitive and confidential. It is important to protect the privacy of participants’ data.

• Benefit sharing: The benefits of vaccine trials often accrue to the pharmaceutical companies that develop the vaccines, rather than to the participants in the trials. This can be seen as unfair, especially for participants who are from vulnerable populations.

15. FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions)

Are vaccines effective?

Yes, vaccines are effective at preventing infectious diseases. They work by exposing the body to a weakened or inactive form of the virus or bacteria, which helps the body develop immunity to the disease. Vaccines are one of the most effective ways to prevent infectious diseases.

Are vaccines safe for children?

Yes, vaccines are safe for children. They have been rigorously tested and are very safe. The benefits of vaccines far outweigh the risks. Vaccines are one of the safest and most effective ways to protect children from infectious diseases.

Are vaccines safe for pregnant women?

Most vaccines are safe for pregnant women. However, it is important to talk to your doctor about the risks and benefits of each vaccine before getting vaccinated while pregnant. Some vaccines, such as the flu vaccine, are recommended for all pregnant women.

Can I get sick from a vaccine?

It is possible to get sick from a vaccine, but it is very rare. The most common side effects of vaccines are mild and go away on their own. Serious side effects from vaccines are very rare.

How can I help to improve vaccine rates?

There are many ways to help to improve vaccine rates. You can talk to your friends and family about the importance of vaccines. You can also support policies that promote vaccination. And you can get vaccinated yourself!

How can I talk to my doctor about vaccines?

If you have any questions or concerns about vaccines, you should talk to your doctor. Your doctor can help you understand the benefits and risks of vaccines and make the best decision for you and your family.

How do I get vaccinated?

You can get vaccinated at your doctor’s office, a pharmacy, or a health department. You can also find a vaccination clinic near you by visiting the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website.

How do vaccines work?

Vaccines work by exposing the body to a weakened or inactive form of the virus or bacteria, which helps the body develop immunity to the disease. When the body is exposed to the virus or bacteria again, it will be able to fight off the infection.

What are the benefits of vaccines?

Vaccines have many benefits, including:

• Preventing infectious diseases
• Reducing the spread of infectious diseases
• Protecting people from serious illness, disability, and death
• Reducing the number of hospitalizations and deaths from infectious diseases
• Saving money on healthcare costs

What are the different cultural considerations about vaccines?

There are many different cultural considerations about vaccines. Some cultures have religious beliefs that may conflict with vaccination. Other cultures may have different beliefs about the safety or effectiveness of vaccines. It is important to be aware of these cultural considerations when discussing vaccines with people from different cultures.

What are the different economic considerations about vaccines?

There are also many different economic considerations about vaccines. The cost of vaccines can be a barrier for some people. And the cost of vaccination programs can be a burden on governments and healthcare systems. It is important to find ways to make vaccines more affordable and accessible to everyone.

What are the different environmental considerations about vaccines?

The production and disposal of vaccines can have an impact on the environment. It is important to minimize the environmental impact of vaccines whenever possible.

What are the different ethical considerations about vaccines?

There are many different ethical considerations about vaccines. Some people believe that people have the right to choose whether or not to be vaccinated. Others believe that vaccination is a moral obligation. And still others believe that the government should have the power to mandate vaccination. It is important to have a thoughtful discussion about these ethical considerations when making decisions about vaccines.

What are the different laws and regulations about vaccines?

There are different laws and regulations about vaccines in different countries. Some countries have mandatory vaccination laws, while others do not. It is important to be aware of the laws and regulations in your country when making decisions about vaccines.

What are the different legal considerations about vaccines?

There are also different legal considerations about vaccines. Some people have sued vaccine manufacturers for alleged side effects from vaccines. And some people have challenged vaccine mandates in court. It is important to be aware of the legal considerations when making decisions about vaccines.

What are the different myths about vaccines?

There are many myths about vaccines, some of the most common ones include:

• Vaccines cause autism.
• Vaccines are not safe.
• Vaccines are unnecessary.
• Vaccines can give you the disease they are designed to prevent.
• Vaccines are made with harmful chemicals.
• Vaccines are a government conspiracy.

These myths are not true. Vaccines are safe and effective, and they are one of the best ways to protect yourself from infectious diseases.

What are the different political considerations about vaccines?

There are many different political considerations about vaccines. Some people believe that the government should have the power to mandate vaccination, while others believe that people have the right to choose whether or not to be vaccinated. There is also debate about the role of government funding for vaccine research and development.

What are the different religious considerations about vaccines?

There are many different religious considerations about vaccines. Some religions have beliefs that may conflict with vaccination, such as the belief that vaccines contain harmful substances or that they are a form of interference with God’s will. It is important to be aware of these religious considerations when discussing vaccines with people from different religions.

What are the different social considerations about vaccines?

There are many different social considerations about vaccines. Some people may feel pressure to get vaccinated because of their peers or their social group. Others may feel that getting vaccinated is a personal choice that should not be influenced by social pressure. It is important to be aware of these social considerations when making decisions about vaccines.

What are the different storage requirements for vaccines?

Different vaccines have different storage requirements. Some vaccines need to be stored in a refrigerator, while others need to be stored in a freezer. It is important to follow the storage instructions for each vaccine to ensure that it remains safe and effective.

What are the different types of vaccines?

There are many different types of vaccines. Some of the most common types include:

• Live attenuated vaccines: These vaccines contain a weakened form of the virus or bacteria that causes the disease.
•  
• Inactivated vaccines: These vaccines contain a killed form of the virus or bacteria that causes the disease.
•  
• Subunit vaccines: These vaccines contain only a part of the virus or bacteria that causes the disease.
• Conjugate vaccines: These vaccines combine a subunit vaccine with a carrier protein.

What are the different ways to administer vaccines?

There are many different ways to administer vaccines. Some of the most common ways include:

• Injection: This is the most common way to administer vaccines.
• Oral administration: This is a less common way to administer vaccines, but it is becoming more common.
• Nasal administration: This is a newer way to administer vaccines.

What are the different ways to get information about vaccines?

There are many different ways to get information about vaccines. Some of the most common ways include:

• Talk to your doctor.
• Visit the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website.
• Read reliable news sources.
• Talk to trusted friends and family members.

What are the ingredients in vaccines?

The ingredients in vaccines vary depending on the type of vaccine. Some of the most common ingredients include:

• The virus or bacteria that causes the disease
• A weakened or killed form of the virus or bacteria
• A carrier protein
• A preservative
• A stabilizer

What are the risks of vaccines?

The risks of vaccines are very low. The most common side effects are mild and go away on their own. Serious side effects from vaccines are very rare.

What are the side effects of vaccines?

The side effects of vaccines vary depending on the type of vaccine. Some of the most common side effects include:

• Pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site
• Mild fever
• Fatigue
• Headache
• Muscle pain

When should I get vaccinated?

The timing of vaccination depends on the type of vaccine. Some vaccines are given as a series of shots, while others are given as a single shot. It is important to follow the recommendations of your doctor or other healthcare provider.

Which vaccines are recommended for my age group?

The vaccines that are recommended for your age group vary depending on your age, health status, and other factors. It is important to talk to your doctor or other healthcare provider to find out which vaccines are right for you.

Why do I need to get vaccinated if I’m healthy?

Even if you are healthy, you can still get sick from infectious diseases. Vaccines help to protect you from these diseases

What are the different ways to get vaccinated?

You can get vaccinated by a doctor, nurse, or other healthcare provider. You can also get vaccinated at a pharmacy or health department.

What are the different storage requirements for vaccines?

Vaccines need to be stored at a specific temperature to remain effective. The storage requirements vary depending on the vaccine.

What are the different ways to get information about vaccines?

You can get information about vaccines from your doctor, nurse, or other healthcare provider. You can also get information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the World Health Organization (WHO), and other reputable sources.

How can I talk to my doctor about vaccines?

You can schedule an appointment with your doctor to talk about vaccines. You can also ask your doctor questions about vaccines during a routine checkup.

What are the different myths about vaccines?

There are many myths about vaccines. Some of the most common myths are that vaccines cause autism, that vaccines are not safe, and that vaccines are unnecessary.

How can I help to improve vaccine rates?

You can help to improve vaccine rates by getting vaccinated yourself, talking to your friends and family about vaccines, and supporting policies that promote vaccination.

What are the different laws and regulations about vaccines?

There are laws and regulations in place to ensure that vaccines are safe and effective. These laws and regulations vary from country to country.

What are the different ethical considerations about vaccines?

There are ethical considerations to be made about vaccines. Some of the ethical considerations include the right to bodily autonomy, the right to informed consent, and the duty to protect public health.

What are the different economic considerations about vaccines?

There are economic considerations to be made about vaccines. Some of the economic considerations include the cost of vaccines, the cost of vaccine-preventable diseases, and the cost of vaccine research and development.

What are the different social considerations about vaccines?

There are social considerations to be made about vaccines. Some of the social considerations include the impact of vaccines on individuals, families, and communities.

What are the different environmental considerations about vaccines?

There are environmental considerations to be made about vaccines. Some of the environmental considerations include the impact of vaccines on the environment, the disposal of vaccine waste, and the use of animals in vaccine research.

What are the different political considerations about vaccines?

There are political considerations to be made about vaccines. Some of the political considerations include the role of government in vaccine policy, the role of the pharmaceutical industry in vaccine development, and the role of the media in vaccine communication.

What are the different religious considerations about vaccines?

There are religious considerations to be made about vaccines. Some of the religious considerations include the role of faith in vaccine decision-making, the role of religious leaders in vaccine education, and the role of religious texts in vaccine interpretation.

What are the different cultural considerations about vaccines?

There are cultural considerations to be made about vaccines. Some of the cultural considerations include the role of culture in vaccine decision-making, the role of cultural leaders in vaccine education, and the role of cultural norms in vaccine acceptance.

What are the different legal considerations about vaccines?

There are legal considerations to be made about vaccines. Some of the legal considerations include the right to refuse vaccination, the liability of vaccine manufacturers, and the regulation of vaccine advertising.

What are the different ethical considerations about vaccines?

There are ethical considerations to be made about vaccines. Some of the ethical considerations include the right to bodily autonomy, the right to informed consent, and the duty to protect public health.

What are the different ways to prevent vaccine-preventable diseases?

There are a number of ways to prevent vaccine-preventable diseases. These include vaccination, good hygiene, and avoiding contact with infected people.

What are the different types of vaccines?

There are many different types of vaccines. These include live attenuated vaccines, inactivated vaccines, subunit vaccines, and conjugate vaccines.

What are the different ways to administer vaccines?

Vaccines can be administered in a number of ways. These include injection, oral administration, and nasal administration.

What are the different side effects of vaccines?

Vaccines can have a number of side effects. These side effects are usually mild and go away on their own.

16. The future of vaccines

Future Developments and Research

• Vaccine Platforms

Researchers are continuously exploring new vaccine platforms and technologies. These platforms can be rapidly adapted for various pathogens, which was evident during the COVID-19 pandemic where multiple vaccine candidates were developed in record time.

• Personalized Vaccines

With advances in genomics and personalized medicine, there’s potential for developing vaccines tailored to an individual’s genetic makeup. Such an approach might enhance vaccine efficacy and reduce side effects for specific populations.

• Therapeutic Vaccines

While most vaccines are preventive (given before the disease develops), therapeutic vaccines aim to treat existing diseases. This approach is being researched for diseases like cancer, where a vaccine might stimulate the immune system to target and kill cancer cells.

• Vaccines for Non-infectious Diseases

Research is ongoing to develop vaccines for conditions not caused by infectious agents. Examples include vaccines for certain types of cancers, allergies, and autoimmune disorders.

• Improved Vaccine Delivery Systems

Beyond the traditional injection method, researchers are exploring oral vaccines, nasal sprays, and even patch-based systems to make vaccine administration more accessible and less invasive.

• Collaboration and Data Sharing

In the age of globalization and digital transformation, rapid data sharing and collaboration between countries and research institutions can accelerate vaccine development and distribution.

• Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy
  

Research is also focused on understanding the social and psychological factors behind vaccine hesitancy and finding ways to address concerns, dispel myths, and promote the benefits of vaccination on a global scale.

As science and technology advance, the future of vaccine development promises even more innovative solutions to combat old and new health threats. Collaboration, understanding, and education will be pivotal in ensuring that these advancements benefit the global population.

The Future of Vaccines: New Technologies and Innovations

Vaccines are one of the most effective tools for preventing infectious diseases. They have helped to save millions of lives and have played a major role in improving global health.

In recent years, there have been significant advances in vaccine technology. These advances have led to the development of new vaccines that are more effective, safer, and easier to administer.

Some of the most promising new vaccine technologies include:

• mRNA vaccines: mRNA vaccines are a new type of vaccine that uses messenger RNA to train the body’s immune system to fight a disease. mRNA vaccines are very safe and effective, and they are being used to develop vaccines against COVID-19, influenza, and other diseases.

• Gene-edited vaccines: Gene-edited vaccines are vaccines that have been modified to include genetic material from the disease-causing organism. This allows the vaccine to be more effective and to provide longer-lasting protection.

• Nanoparticle vaccines: Nanoparticle vaccines are vaccines that are delivered using nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are small particles that can carry vaccine antigens into the body. 

This makes it possible to develop vaccines against diseases that are difficult to vaccine against using traditional methods.

These are just a few of the new vaccine technologies that are being developed. These technologies have the potential to revolutionize the way vaccines are made and used. They could lead to the development of vaccines against diseases that are currently untreatable or preventable.

The future of vaccines is bright. With continued research and development, vaccines will become even more effective, safer, and easier to administer. This will help to protect people from infectious diseases and improve global health.

In addition to the new vaccine technologies mentioned above, there are also a number of other promising developments in the field of vaccinology. These include:

The development of new delivery methods for vaccines, such as edible vaccines and nasal sprays.

The development of vaccines that can be stored at room temperature, making them more accessible in developing countries.

The development of vaccines that can be tailored to individual needs, such as vaccines that are more effective in older adults or people with certain medical conditions.

These developments are all part of the ongoing effort to improve the lives of people around the world. By continuing to invest in research and development, we can make vaccines even more effective and accessible, and help to create a healthier future for all.

17. Resources and References

Timeline & Biological characteristics of some vaccines:

• Rabies Vaccine (1885)

Killed whole organisms were used to develop vaccines against:

• cholera (1896)
• typhoid (1896)
• plague (1897)

• Injectable Polio Vaccine (1955, whole killed virus)

Live attenuated vaccines were made against:

• Oral Polio vaccine (OPV, 1963)
• Measles (1963)
• Mumps (1967)
• Rubella (1969)

• Anthrax vaccine (a protein-based vaccine, 1970)

• Hepatitis B surface antigen recombinant (a genetically engineered vaccine, 1986)

• Hepatitis A (a whole killed organism-based vaccine,1996)

• Human papillomavirus (HPV) recombinant vaccine (quadrivalent in 2006)

• Zoster vaccine (Live attenuated vaccine Zoster in 2006)

• HPV recombinant (bivalent in 2009), 

• Pneumococcal conjugates (capsular polysaccharide conjugated with the career protein) (13-valent in 2010)

• Dengue virus vaccine Dengvaxia (CYD-TDV, 2016).
  
  This live attenuated tetravalent chimeric vaccine is developed through the use of recombinant DNA technology by replacing the PrM (pre-membrane) and E (envelope) structural genes of the yellow fever attenuated 17D strain vaccine with those from four of the five dengue serotypes.

Here is a list of trusted sources for further reading and researching of citations:

• www.nih.gov
• www.nhs.uk
• www.cdc.gov
• www.fda.gov
• www.immunize.org
• https://www.hrsa.gov
• https://www.ema.europa.eu/en
• https://www.health.gov.au

18. Concluding Thoughts

The type of vaccine that is best for you will depend on your age, health status, and the diseases that you are most at risk of contracting. Your doctor can help you decide which vaccine is right for you.

Here are some additional things to keep in mind about vaccines:

• Vaccines are safe and effective. They have been rigorously tested and have been shown to be very effective at preventing disease.

• Vaccines are not 100% effective. In rare cases, people who are vaccinated can still get the disease. However, the risk of getting the disease is much lower if you are vaccinated.

• Vaccines are important for protecting yourself and others from disease. They help to create herd immunity, which means that even people who cannot be vaccinated are protected from disease because the people around them are vaccinated.